The sun is setting as the crew of the Hurricane Hunters catch a slight break in the storm, September 13, 2018. NOAA has also used the G-IV to gather important data upstream of winter storms and study "atmospheric rivers," narrow bands of moisture that regularly form above the Pacific Ocean and flow towards North Americas west coast, drenching it in rain and packing it with snow. The flight crew for a Hurricane Hunter is normally given 48 hours of notice for a flight. A Warner Bros. Stay informed:Sign upfor ourdailyandweeklyaviation news digests. [15], The story of a NOAA flight during Hurricane Hugo was shown as part of the Mayday television show on the during 2015. The mission for these so-called Hurricane Hunters starts because once the engines roar, it's an 8 to 10-hour race through the sky. Both organizations fly missions into tropical disturbances in order to record invaluable data used by forecasters at the National Hurricane Center (NHC). The other is the Gulfstream IV, which flies around the hurricane at about . Aboard Kermit, scientists and engineers are trying to put more certainty into the cone . The Hurricane Hunters fly into storms to collect atmospheric data which is provided to the National Hurricane Center for use in . Using P-3 Orions - aircraft originally designed to hunt submarines during the Cold War - scientists record wind speeds, atmospheric pressure, humidity and other information, transmitting it to command centers on land. "Five-and-a-half Gs!" but we need to get our hurricane hunters into the storm itself to really pick the hurricane apart. Reuters provides business, financial, national and international news to professionals via desktop terminals, the world's media organizations, industry events and directly to consumers. It looked like a Category 5 on the inside of the plane when the crew finally reached Hugo's calm center. These planes help scientists better understand hurricanes and predict their path. And just as is done for tropical cyclones, the missions are coordinated through the Chief, Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination All Hurricanes, also known as CARCAH,located at NOAAs National Hurricane Center in Miami. On Sept. 28, the Orion aircraft plowed through hurricane Ian during a period of rapid intensification. Hurricanes are massive cyclone storms that reach altitudes up to 50,000 feet. After that, tropical disturbances have a better chance of reaching the Caribbean. That helps engineers monitor our reservoirs, including Folsom Lake and Lake Mendocino, to gauge when to release water. The bodies and the plane were never recovered. That isnt a very healthy storm. Price explains, being a pilot in the front seat of an airplane was a whole lot more fun than being bounced around in the back of one as a kid. While serving as a Navy pilot, flying missions from South America to Afghanistan, he learned about the NOAA Corps and its hurricane research and reconnaissance missions. High-tech radar systems on the aircraft provide researchers and forecasters an MRI-like look at the storm, allowing them to see the different layers and internal structures. Jason Dunion, a University of Miami meteorologist, leads the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations 2022 hurricane field program. Hurricane hunters have been flying into storms for 75 years to measure wind speeds and pressure. By 1946, though, the idea of flying through hurricanes was official and Hurricane Hunter flights began to be regular. Have you ever been on a flight that has changed its course due to such a storm? Hurricane Hunters to retrieve storm data for forecasters so they can predict just how much rain, wind, and how long these storms will last. So we might watch our dropsonde or tail doppler radar data for how the winds are flowing at the boundary layer. In the place of parachutes on the sturdy WC-130Js the Hurricane Hunters fly are life vests should the plane go down in a storm. Their courage helps further science and save lives. Each mission lasts eight to 10 hours, with much of the flight time taking place inside the hurricane or in extreme conditions. Irene's eye structure was wide enough to support a takeoff from the island. At some point not too far in the future, the National Hurricane Center will have to do a seven-day forecast, rather than just five days. In addition to conducting research to help scientists better understand hurricanes and other kinds of tropical cyclones, NOAA's P-3s participate in storm reconnaissance missions when tasked to do so by the NOAA National Weather Service's National Hurricane Center. Others, however, fly straight into the giant storms. The 'eyewall' of Hurricane Katrina, as seen in August 2005. What are hurricane hunters and why do they fly into hirricanes? Henry E. Rohlsen Airport, located in St. Croix, is used by the53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron also known as the Air Force Hurricane Hunters to extend their surveillance into the central Atlantic. WB-29, 19511956; WB-50, 19561963; WB-47, 19631969; WC-121N 19541973; WC-130A, B, E, H, 19652012. You are here: https://www.omao.noaa.gov/learn/aircraft-operations/about/hurricane-hunters Reviewed: October 2, 2022. Questions? The depth of ocean heat as Hurricane Ida headed for a warm eddy boundary on Aug. 28, 2021. Hurricanes like to stand up straight think of a spinning top. As such, the thought of flying a plane into one seems a rather dangerous prospect. But it's a driving force for us.". A WC-130 aircraft similar to the plane that was lost in Typhoon Bess. The storm, which was a category 5 hurricane, made its way through Cuba in early September 2017. The Alpha pattern is the standard profile we fly for fix missions so its the one people are most familiar with seeing from us, Maj. Jeremy DeHart, meteorologist and aerial reconnaissance weather officer with the Air Force Reserves 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, said. The P-3s can also deploy probes called bathythermographs that measure the temperature of the sea. This specifically relates to the height of the average hurricane. This information dictates whether people evacuate and businesses shutter, and can ultimately save lives and millions of dollars in property. Hurricane Patricia was a rapidly intensifying Category V hurricane, and ultimately the strongest hurricane on record. The Square Spiral pattern is a survey mission meant to supply observations on the structure and characteristics including information about the vortex center, if it exists. The primary objective of an invest mission is to determine if a system meets the definition of a tropical cyclone; storms that do not yet have a name or any real tropical structure characteristics. In the past, before satellites were used to find tropical storms, military aircraft flew routine weather reconnaissance tracks to detect formation of tropical cyclones. Hurricane Storm Surge. The hurricane was responsible for 49 deaths, including 41 in the United States. They fly winter storm missionsas well. Is it battling shear? Which City Is the Worst for Fall Allergies This Year? The data from the aircraft is quality-controlled by CARCAH and goes into a number of computer models to help improve the forecast of the high-impact winter storms. We also look at the boundary layer, the area just above the ocean. "It's actually exciting," said Maj Hirai. The Hurricane Hunters departed on their first storm tasking of the 2020 Atlantic hurricane season to investigate an area for possible development into a tropical depression or storm near the Bahamas. Watch Air Force's Hurricane Hunters fly directly into Hurricane Dorian. The term "hurricane hunters" was first applied to its missions in 1946. Known as the 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, this division of the USAF has been sporadically active since 1944, and permanently since 1993. On the day of the flight, a normal pre-flight check starts 23 hours before takeoff. Link Copied! Discovery Company. Known as 'hurricane hunting,' flights that penetrate these tropical cyclones do so for the purpose of gathering weather data. Other types include the A-20 Havoc, 1944; B-24, 19441945; B-17, 19451947; B-25, 19461947; B-29, 19461947. This year, were also testing a new technology small drones that we can launch out of the belly of a P-3. Satellites can capture hurricanes' full breadth, ground sensors can soak up data, but the best way to get a close-up look at the churning monsters is to fly into their dark hearts, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "The more that we can forewarn people that a storm is headed their way, the better they can prepare their homes, the better they can prepare their families," NOAA engineer Nick Underwood told Reuters. The Hurricane Hunters began flying Fiona on Sept. 15, when it was a tropical storm. An Air Force WC-130 with six men aboardpresumably crashed into the South China Sea. We're in the final days of the 2022 tropical storm and hurricane season (it official ends on Nov. 30), so it seemed like an appropriate time for closure. Following his naval commission, he attended Navy flight school. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce seal, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration seal, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), NOAA seal: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Based in Norwich, UK. They fly specially-equipped aircraft into the eyewall of massive and . US Dept of Commerce But, during that flight, we might start to see the structure change pretty quickly. The NOAA G-IV flies at high altitude (40,000 to 45,000 feet) and the USAF WC-130J does so at a lower altitude (24,000 and 30,000 feet). Public File for KMAX-TV / Good Day Sacramento. It is also a country that is often in the news for its hurricanes. There was severe flooding in the mountainous terrain of southern Mexico. 1:11:48. It also has a Gulfstream IV-SP jet which it uses for winter storms. Hurricane Hugo went on to kill 49 people, including 21 in the United States. Since 1997, the G-IV has flown missions around nearly every Atlantic-based hurricane that has posed a potential threat to the United States. University of Miami provides funding as a member of The Conversation US. Commander Scott Price, a NOAA Commissioned Corps Officer, is one of this rare breed. The WC-130J is the workhorse of the 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron (USAF), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. So which planes fulfill this interesting and vital meteorological role? Those orders come fromNOAAs National Centers for Environmental Prediction in College Park, Maryland. NOAA Corps pilots and civilian flight engineers, meteorologists and electronic engineers are highly trained to operate in the kind of adverse weather conditions that keep other aircraft on the ground. That's the best way to get a clear, accurate picture of how strong and . (MORE: Read All About Masters' Hugo Flight). However, it is still rare. They have about a 7- to 9-foot wingspan and are basically a weather station with wings. NOTE: Commander Scott Price retired from the NOAA Corps in 2019 after 20 years of service. No hurricane hunter aircraft has ever taken more than three Gs. Slicing through the eyewall of a hurricane, buffeted by howling winds, blinding rain and violent updrafts and downdrafts before entering the relative calm of the storms eye, NOAAs two Lockheed WP-3D Orion four-engine turboprop aircraft, afectionately nicknamed "Kermit" (N42RF) and "Miss Piggy" (N43RF), probe every wind and pressure change, repeating the often grueling experience again and again during the course of an 8-10 hour mission. Clear weakening trend. Wait: Hurricane Hunters fly winter missions too? Fixed missions are designated for systems that meet tropical cyclone qualifications, such as tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes. The flights can be harrowing, but considering the stakes on the ground Hurricane Ian killed more than 100 people NOAA sees them as invaluable. Most storm-specific training is done on-the-job. She still has family in the Santa Cruz area. 03:04. . The flights can be rough of course, but at the end of the day we just go fly through the storm center, collect the data, and send it to NHC.. First published on January 15, 2023 / 9:18 PM. 2022 Reuters. Hurricane hunting aircraft provide vital information in terms of a storm's potential development. Let us know your thoughts and experiences in the comments. The G-IVs data also supplement the critical low altitude research data that are collected by NOAAs P-3s. A handful of "hurricane hunters" are paid to fly directly into storms. Despite heavy equipment losses, the squadron never missed a mission from the National Hurricane Center. The systems for deploying them are similar to those used in military P-3s to drop sonobuoys, used to listen for submarines. Those flight patterns may look like boxes or stars, but they serve specific purposes for each individual storm. Contact us with page issues. The idea of it was both fascinating and outside my comfort zone, but the caliber of people and the quality individuals I knew Id work alongside at NOAA sealed the deal.. A .gov 60 Years Ago, the Only Hurricane Hunter Plane to Go Down in an Atlantic Basin Storm Crashed in Hurricane Janet. The Hurricane Hunters volunteer for their mission and fly directly through the eye of the hurricane then turn and come through again at a different entry point then turn and do it again. "It is a personal mission for me. Storm surge forecasts have benefited from the addition of NOAA-developed Stepped Frequency Microwave Radiometers (SFMRs) to NOAAs P-3s. Manned flights into hurricanes began in 1943 when, on a bet, pilot-trainer Colonel Joseph Duckworth legendarily flew a single engine plane into a category 1 storm near Galveston, Texas . Hurricane Ian also presented an opportunity to deploy new technology. (MORE: Hurricane Janet Takes 11 Navy Hurricane Hunter Lives). Tropical cyclones usually weaken when they hit land, because they are no longer being "fed" by the energy from the warm ocean waters. What they actually flew into was a 185-mph major hurricane with extreme turbulence and gusts nearing 200 mph. In June 2017[2][3] the Hunters moved into a new facility at Lakeland Linder International Airport in Lakeland, Florida, after being at MacDill since 1993. Characterized by low air pressure and strong winds, these storms can cause extensive disruption when they reach land. When the swirling winds reach speeds of 74 mph (119 km/h . The US is also home to the only military weather reconnaissance unit in the world. SFMRs measure over-ocean wind speed and rain rate in hurricanes and tropical storms, key indicators of potentially deadly storm surges. There is a method to the madness. As Hurricane Ian intensifies on its way toward the Florida coast, hurricane hunters are in the sky doing something almost unimaginable: flying through the center of the storm. Price spoke of the healthy anxiety he feels before a storm flight, No matter how often we fly into these systems, the natural inclination of the pilot in me to avoid inclement weather will never go away entirely, and ultimately helps foster my immense respect for every storm we approach. So far, rapid intensification is hard to predict. This remains the only reconnaissance plane lost in the Atlantic. Not at all! At one point, we had G-forces of 3 to 4 Gs. Flight levels for the Delta and Box patterns are usually at or below 5,000 ft absolute altitude. You cant get that from a satellite. The flight pattern youll typically see from our Gulfstream IV is a circumnavigation of the storm itself, as well as sampling of the atmosphere around and ahead of the storm, Underwood said. Over half the named storms we get in the Atlantic come from this nursery, including about 80% of the major hurricanes, so its important, even though the disturbances are maybe seven to 10 days ahead of a hurricane forming. From NOAA 43/NOAA P-3 aircraft. We were flying low on the western edge of the storm when I requested a . The second half of hurricane season is here and there have already been 17 named storms to keep hurricane hunters busy. Basically, were take a flying laboratory into the heart of the hurricane, all the way up to Category 5s. These probes measure the water temperature down several hundred feet. See here for a complete list of exchanges and delays. NOAAs P-3 Orion nicknamed Kermit prepares to take off. Most pilots try to avoid flying an airplane into severe weather, but not the NOAA Hurricane Hunters. NOAA's Flying Hurricane Hunters Launch Suicidal "Coyote" Drones Into The Middle of Storms. Were typically flying at an altitude of around 10,000 feet, about a quarter of the way between the ocean surface and the top of the storm. Hurricane hunting began with a bet. In September 2008, Tropical Storm Kyle churned off the U.S. East coast, and Price was assigned the first 2 am takeoff. Let us know. The best information about a storm is still found within the storm itself. The Cabo Verde Islands are in the Atlantics hurricane nursery. We can also get zero G for a few seconds, and anything thats not strapped down will float off. For the Hurricane Hunters, there are two main types of missions flown, fixed and invest. 7:52 PM EDT, Sun September 19, 2021, Hurricane Hunter pilot steers into Dorian's path to gather data, NOAA hurricane hunters fly through the eye of Hurricane Dorian in 2019. Watching the target cyclone churn on the radar loop during the mission brief usually sparks that anxiety and also helps ground my mental preparation for the flight ahead. Tropical waves interact with the warm equatorial water of the Atlantic as they head west, triggering columns of warm moist air to rise from the ocean.. That provides two of the three ingredients required for tropical storms to turn into full-blown hurricanes: moist air; Earth's rotation; and warm ocean temperatures. The Air Force Reserve 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, the world's only operational military weather reconnaissance unit, is based at Keesler Air Force Base in Biloxi, Mississippi; most weather recon flights originate there. How hurricane hunters fly into storms. Copyright 20102023, The Conversation Media Group Ltd. Are the winds favorable? That's precisely why a small fleet of . What are hurricane hunters and why do they fly into hurricanes? We also dont have a lot of measurements in the boundary layer because its not a safe place for a plane to fly. Hurricane hunting serves a very important purpose to save lives and property through better forecasts from the National Hurricane Center. The practice of flying aircraft directly into hurricanes dates back as far as the Second World War. At the level the flight crews were flying, winds were estimated to be around 220 mph. Rapid intensification is when a storm increases in speed by 35 mph in just a day. In the US, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) flies two Lockheed WP-3D 'Orion' turboprops. Hurricane hunters' flight patterns shown by meteorologists on TV may look like random, odd shapes, but they serve specific purposes for each storm. When they saw that the Americans were evacuating their AT-6 Texan trainers in the face of the storm, they began questioning the construction of the aircraft. "I was reading these forecasts to the aviators, and now I'm part of the aircrew. We never know what were going to find, yet we always have to be thinking two or three steps ahead. A WC-130J Super Hercules aircraft from the 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron sits on the flightline at Keesler Air Force Base, Miss., May 16, 2020. Please note the HTML5 video option may not work at all in some browsers/devices. "The cockpit G-meter shows we took five-and-a-half Gs up and three-and-a-half Gs down," continues Lowell, now sounding really concerned. Just before 9 a.m. on Monday Lt. Col. Jeff Ragusa briefed his crew at Keesler Air Force Base in Biloxi, Mississippi . Air Force Hurricane Hunters have a variety of flight patterns to choose from for invest missions: X, Delta, and Box, just to name a few. All quotes delayed a minimum of 15 minutes. Marlee Ginter is an Emmy Award-winning investigative journalist. Depending upon where the winter storm could develop, the aircraft are sent to the Gulf of Mexico, or the Atlantic Ocean off the middle-Atlantic coastline, or perhaps both. Truffle hunters in Italy are poisoning their competitors' dogs with snail bait in a war for the 'black gold' that goes for up to $5,000 per pound. "We basically drop the instruments into . The P-3s' tail Doppler radar and lower fuselage radar systems, meanwhile, scan the storm vertically and horizontally, giving scientists and forecasters a real-time look at the storm. In Africa, a lot of thunderstorms develop along the Sahara deserts southern border with the cooler, moister Sahel region in the summer. Indeed, the Office of Marine & Aviation Operations reports that sudden wind changes, such as in a tornado, pose a greater risk. They accidently pierced the nine- to 10-mile-wide eye of this hurricane as it moved ashore. A "G" is the force of gravity, with positive or up Gs meaning you are being pulled toward the ground, and negative or down Gs being the feeling of weightlessness. Prior to that she worked at KOMO TV in Seattle, Washington; WISH TV in Indianapolis, Indiania; WSPA TV in Spartanburg, South Carolina; and WTOC TV in Savannah, Georgia. Price, the son of a pilot, did not dream of walking in his Dads footsteps. Inside the eye of a hurricane from above 1,000 feet. You can lose a few hundred feet in a couple of seconds if you have a down draft, or you can hit an updraft and gain a few hundred feet in a matter of seconds. Hurricane hunters are planes that fly into hurricanes to help gather data about them. Sometimes we're not necessarily in it, but in the P-3 Orion . For the exciting conclusion of our series on NOAA's Hurricane Hunter aircraft, we ask meteorologist Nikki Hathaway how flights through tropical storms can give us insight into their origins, mechanics, and perhaps most importantly, their trajectories. Major Christopher Dyke, a hurricane hunter, tells CNN's Allison Chinchar what it . NOAAs Gulfstream IV-SP (G-IV)which can fly high, fast and far with a range of 4,000 nautical miles and a cruising altitude of 45,000 ft., paints a detailed picture of weather systems in the upper atmosphere surrounding developing hurricanes. They fly specially-equipped aircraft into the eyewall of massive and dangerous storms to collect . Underwood said one of his flights through Hurricane Ian, which devastated Florida and caused flooding in parts of the eastern United States, was "the worst" he had ever been on. - CBS Sacramento. Hurricane hunters may be as busy now as during hurricane season. "Once a system becomes a tropical storm or hurricane, the hurricane hunters begin flying at higher altitudes, ranging from 5,000 to 10,000 feet depending on the severity of the storm," said . We also launch ocean probes call AXBTs aircraft expendable bathythermograph out ahead of the storm. We need instruments that not only measure the atmosphere but also the ocean. While modern satellites have improved the ability of meteorologists to detect cyclones before they form, only aircraft are able to measure the interior barometric pressure of a hurricane and provide accurate wind speed data, information needed to accurately predict hurricane development and movement. Since 1999, it has operated a fleet of 10 Lockheed WC-130J 'Weatherbird' turboprops, which have a five-person crew. Did you encounter any technical issues? It felt like being a feather in the wind. He also continuously communicates with his co-pilot and Flight Engineer the aircrafts airspeed, attitude, track and altitude. . Related Videos. Thats what astronauts experience during a rocket launch. In 1946, the moniker "Hurricane Hunters" was first used, and the Air Force and now Air Force Reserve have used it ever since. Once we are able to map a full circulation (usually by finding a west wind), well shift back to Figure 4s based on that newly identified center position.. 2023 CBS Broadcasting Inc. All Rights Reserved. They got a look at this weekend's storms before we even started feeling the rain. January 12, 2023, 10:50 PM . It takes a significant amount of preparation to deploy a full crew to a variety of international locations. Hurricane Hunters to study latest weather storms for better forecasting data. Some of those tropical waves are the precursors for hurricanes. While the X pattern may resemble the Alpha pattern, it is flown at much lower altitudes, usually around 500 to 1,000 feet. Not at all! The seedlings of hurricanes come off Africa, and were trying to determine the tipping points for theses disturbances to form into storms. These storms peak from June to mid-August. Patricia's minimum central pressure was 872 millibars, a record for the Western Hemisphere. Posted: 9/28/2022 4:56:17 PM EST. The low-pressure base acts like a vacuum that sucks more warm, moist air into the spiral. As Hurricane Ian intensified on its way toward the Florida coast, hurricane hunters were in the sky doing something almost unimaginable: flying through the center of the storm. The pilots, Flight Director and Navigator conduct a mission brief with science team personnel to review the planned route, mission profile, data collection objectives, current and forecast storm development, expected hazards (e.g., convection, icing, salt accretion); weather for takeoff, landing and the en-route portion, etc. Choices are stored using browser cookies. Supported by the United States Weather Bureau, the "storm patrol bill" passed both the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives on June 15, 1936.[6]. Thats why we get those huge updrafts in the eyewall. That summer, British pilots were being trained in instrument flying at Bryan Field. Patricia weakened before landfall in a sparsely populated area of Mexico, but caused an estimated $325 million in damage. The eye is the calmest part of the storm, but its surrounded by the most intense part: the eyewall. We also look at the structure. Before satellites, pilots would fly out over the ocean patrolling for storms. The Hurricane Hunters have gone more than 40 years without fatalities, but that streak hasn't always been as long. He described the technology the team is using to gauge hurricane behavior in real time and the experience aboard a P-3 Orion as it plunges through the eyewall of a hurricane. This P-3 flight penetrated the eyewall 3,500 feet lower than recommended for a hurricane of Hugo's intensity. With a hurricane rolling ashore near Galveston, Texas, the instructor bet the trainees that he could fly into the hurricane and back just using the instrument technique, proving its worth. This means that it is sometimes safe for airliners to fly over them. The low bandwidth option causes most images to disappear and stops external fonts from loading. The 53rd WRS hurricane hunters operate ten Lockheed WC . TAMPA, Fla. (WFLA) If you've ever wondered what it takes to go up in the air during dangerous tropical cyclones and fly straight into the storm, you're not alone. "And the other thing was lightning, just tons of lightning, especially in and around the eyewall of the storm, which is something that you really just don't see all that often. One is the P-3, which flies at about 10,000 feet or below, directly into the worst of the hurricane and through the eye. A keen amateur photographer, he also recently reached the milestone of flying his 100th sector as a passenger. The NHC takes the data and uses it to issue guidance and advisories to the public, so people know whether Elsa or Ida or Nicholas are still tropical storms or have become hurricanes. Sixty-one years ago, Navy Reconnaissance flight Snowcloud Five left GuantanamoBay in Cuba and never returned to base. The flight crew for a Hurricane Hunter is normally given 48 hours of notice for a flight. Hurricane Hunters also fly a third type of mission, which the Air Force rarely flies, according to DeHart, called synoptic missions. They got a look at this weekend's storms before we even started feeling the rain. During my first full hurricane season, my crew was deployed to St. Croix, flying in and around Category 5 Hurricane Isabel. Your effort and contribution in providing this feedback is much The topic of Gs is usually brought up with roller coasters or space launches. While were flying, were crunching data and sending it to forecasters and climate modelers. [7] VW-4 lost one aircraft and crew in a penetration of Hurricane Janet,[8] and another to severe damage in a storm, but the severely damaged Willy Victor (MH-1) brought her crew home, although she never flew again. Air in, up and out the breathing is a great way to diagnose a storm. . Is that really moist air rushing in toward the center of the storm? The Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter aircrews flew five weather reconnaissance missions into Hurricane Douglas, the season's first hurricane in the Pacific Ocean, July 24-27, collecting data to assist Central Pacific Hurricane Center forecasters.

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